# ciao (greeting)



## I Am Herenow

Obviously, it's Italian for hi/bye, but other than that, I know that in English, at least, you can use it for "bye" (in Russian too). Both have connotations of style or fashion - perhaps it's something a woman would say, rather than a man.

Which other languages use it, and for "bye" only or "hi" and "bye"? Are the words neutral in that language or do they have any slant? Thanks!


----------



## Carrie2

To my knowledge, English, Russian, Spanish and Czech use it. You seem to know about Russian & English already. To my mind, in Spanish and Czech they're informal and mainly used by the younger generation, but obviously native speakers would be in a position to comment on that than I am.

Note that the spelling of ciao is often changed in other languages: in Spanish I think it's often spelt chau, and in Czech it's čau. (In English we write ciao, the same as in Italian.)


----------



## I Am Herenow

Cool, thanks!

Does French not use "ciao" then? I know they do have "cou-cou" (or "cou cou", can't remember) for "hi" - the sound a cuckoo bird makes (in the Russian version, anyway) - which we then nabbed and put into Russian


----------



## Chazzwozzer

Turks also say ciao, but only when they want to say "bye." (bye is much more common to say, though)

Turkish pronunciation is a bit different. It's sometimes spelled as it is pronounced: *çav*


I Am Herenow said:


> Does French not use "ciao" then? I know they do have "cou-cou" (or "cou cou", can't remember) for "hi" - the sound a cuckoo bird makes (in the Russian version, anyway) - which we then nabbed and put into Russian


Far as I know, many French use and spell *tchao*.


----------



## DrWatson

In Finnish it's used too, but not that often based on my experience. It's spelled *tsau*.


----------



## Arrius

It may be of some slight interest to learn that *ciao *is a corruption of the Italian salutation *sono il suo schiavo* (I am your slave), which replaced the Latin greeting *SERVUS* with the same meaning. Ciao is quite frequently used in German too to say goodbye, and German speakers in the southern part of the German "Sprachraum" even use the Latin word sometimes, but as a greeting on meeting someone whilst out walking, including strangers. It is sometimes spelt *Tschau!*


----------



## Lillita

It is used in Hungary, too (mostly by young women) with a Hungarian twist:_* "csaó"*_ or _*"csáó"*_. The pronunciation is the same as in case of the original Italian word. What's more, some other ways of saying _hi_ and _bye_ in Hungarian come from this word, such as _*csá*_ and _*cső*_. These two are very informal.

I believe, it is used in some Spanish-speaking countries as well: _chao_. And I have even heard _"chaito"_ which is _"little ciao"_ literally.


----------



## I Am Herenow

> It may be of some slight interest to learn that *ciao *is a corruption of the Italian salutation *sono il suo schiavo* (I am your slave), which replaced the Latin greeting *SERVUS* with the same meaning. Ciao is quite frequently used in German too to say goodbye, and German speakers in the southern part of the German "Sprachraum" even use the Latin word sometimes, but as a greeting on meeting someone whilst out walking, including strangers.


 
How interesting. I read in this phrasebook that "servus" (or similar, can't remember spelling) was one of the ways in German for saying "hi" - always thought it was just a coincidence.



> It is used in Hungary, too (mostly by young women) with a Hungarian twist:_* "csaó"*_ or _*"csáó"*_. The pronunciation is the same as in case of the original Italian word. What's more, some other ways of saying _hi_ and _bye_ in Hungarian come from this word, such as _*csá*_ and _*cső*_. These two are very informal.
> 
> I believe, it is used in some Spanish-speaking countries as well: _chao_. And I have even heard _"chaito"_ which is _"little ciao"_ literally.


 
Hee-hee, "chaito", sounds so cute lol


----------



## Lillita

I Am Herenow said:


> How interesting. I read in this phrasebook that "servus" (or similar, can't remember spelling) was one of the ways in German for saying "hi" - always thought it was just a coincidence.


 
We say _"szervusz"_ in Hungarian, too. But the most common way to say _hi/bye_ is _*"szia"*_.


----------



## Mutichou

I Am Herenow said:


> Cool, thanks!
> 
> Does French not use "ciao" then? I know they do have "cou-cou" (or "cou cou", can't remember) for "hi" - the sound a cuckoo bird makes (in the Russian version, anyway) - which we then nabbed and put into Russian


It's written "coucou." 
And we also use "ciao" for "bye."


----------



## DearPrudence

I Am Herenow said:


> Does French not use "ciao" then? I know they do have "cou-cou" (or "cou cou", can't remember) for "hi" - the sound a cuckoo bird makes (in the Russian version, anyway) - which we then nabbed and put into Russian





Chazzwozzer said:


> Far as I know, many French use and spell *tchao*.


Yes, we use "*ciao*" spelt the way we can, that is "*tchao*", just to say "*bye*" and it's informal.
We don't use "ciao" to say "hello".

We use "*coucou*" to say "*hello*" but its use is limited to close friends I would say. 

Note: informally we also use the English "*bye*" and the German "*tschüss*"


----------



## OldAvatar

It is also often used in Romanian. Most of times prounounced with the Romanian particularity of having *u *instead of *o *at the end of some words: *ciau/ceau* (Tchau). It is mostly used as *good-bye*, very rarely used when you're seeing someone. *Servus *is used too in some regions. But the use of these words is a bit forced since Romanian has the perfect and shorter equivalent *Pa.*


----------



## Whodunit

Lillita said:


> I believe, it is used in some Spanish-speaking countries as well: _chao_. And I have even heard _"chaito"_ which is _"little ciao"_ literally.


 
Some people like to add "-y" or "-ie" to "ciao" to sound more friendly. It is sometimes used among girls or from boy to girl. If a man/boy says it to another man/boy, it will sound kind of humorous. 

There are numerous ways to spell these words:

*Ciao!*
*Tschau!*

*Ciaoy/Ciaoie!*
*Tschauie!*

We also use "bye" or "bye bye" (some spell it _baba_) sometimes, but again, it's more often used by girls and sounds quite fashionable.


----------



## Jana337

Carrie2 said:


> To my knowledge, English, Russian, Spanish and Czech use it. You seem to know about Russian & English already. To my mind, in Spanish and Czech they're informal and mainly used by the younger generation, but obviously native speakers would be in a position to comment on that than I am.


I'd say it is common for all generations in Czech, in informal contexts. Obviously, youngsters have more opportunities to use it because they mainly use with their peers. If you are 15 and talk to another 15 years old, you can safely say "čau" without knowing the other person well. Not so if you are in your 40s.


----------



## Flaminius

Latvian:
In much keeping with Czech which influenced the shaping of the Latvian orthography, _čav_ is a common phrase for casual greeting.


----------



## deine

Ciao is used in Slovenia for "hi" and "bye". 
In Lithuania we use this just for "bye".


----------



## I Am Herenow

Whoa, nice!

It's a pretty widespread thing, then, huh?


----------



## elroy

Generally, "ciao" is _not_ used in Palestinian Arabic.

You may hear it (very) occasionally, but to my ears it sounds artificial and pretentious.


----------



## Outsider

It's commonly used in Portuguese as an informal "Bye". See also this previous discussion.


----------



## Maja

"Ćao" is used in Serbian very frequently! Especially  amongst younger population. We use it for "hi" and "bye".


----------



## univerio

In Chinese, there's a similar-sounding word/character that is a swear word.


----------



## Athaulf

Maja said:


> "Ćao" is used in Serbian very frequently! Especially  amongst younger population. We use it for "hi" and "bye".



Interestingly, it's not used that much in Croatia (at least North Croatia), although of course everyone will understand it.


----------



## Sange

In swedish Ciao is sometimes used by adolescants to say goodbye. More common, though, is *Tja*, which is pronounced almost the same. I'm pretty sure everyone would understand it, but it to me it would sound a bit peurile.


----------



## sarcie

Just a note on the usage of "Ciao" in English - it is used, but has a definite connotation of pretension (in Ireland at least, and I'm 99% sure the connotation applies in England as well). 

I don't use it when speaking English at home, because it sounds so pretentious. I do use it when speaking German, French, Dutch and Spanish though!


----------



## I Am Herenow

univerio said:


> In Chinese, there's a similar-sounding word/character that is a swear word.


 
Might be a coincidence? 

PS

I assume you mean Mandarin, right (judging by your description thingy)?


----------



## MadelineLynn

"Ciao" can be used in German to say "bye", but not to say "hello".


----------



## Frank06

Hi,


MadelineLynn said:


> "Ciao" can be used in German to say "bye", but not to say "hello".


 
Same goes for *Dutch*: it is used to say 'bye' (which is used in itself too, as is French salut). The word 'ciao' often gets a typical local diminutive ending in -kes, resulting in 'ciao*kes*' (a weird parallel with Portuguese, no??). 
'Ciaokes' obviously applies only to spoken language and is dialectical/very infomal.

Groetjes,

Frank


----------



## karunavera

Hallo! I'm italian and when I began to read this tread it sounded very strange to me that an italian word was used in so many countries, but...here in Italy we use very often spanish or english words to say goodbye; we use the english bye, or the spanish adios, but only justb like a sort of joke, you know!!!
CIAO CIAO!!!!


----------



## Outsider

Frank06 said:


> The word 'ciao' often gets a typical local diminutive ending in -kes, resulting in 'ciao*kes*' (a weird parallel with Portuguese, no??).


Oh, like _Tchauzinho_!


----------



## suslik

we use it in Estonia all the time...It's main thing for to say hi and bye, ecpecially for younger people


----------



## Maja

Athaulf said:


> Interestingly, it's not used that  much in Croatia (at least North Croatia), although of course everyone will  understand it.


 Yeah, I guess you use "bog" more? 
I would say that we  use "zdravo" and "ćao" evenly. It is more common to hear "zdravo" from older  people in informal speech, but I also heard many of them using "ćao" when addressing younger people (their kids, grandkids,  etc.).


----------



## Thomas1

I hear in Polish too, mainly from young women, I can't say if it's not used by older generations but I wouldn't be surprised if it is.
_Ciao_ is used as a form of saying bye. To me it has a nice sounding.

Tom


----------



## Alxmrphi

karunavera said:


> Hallo! I'm italian and when I began to read this tread it sounded very strange to me that an italian word was used in so many countries, but...here in Italy we use very often spanish or english words to say goodbye; we use the english bye, or the spanish adios, but only justb like a sort of joke, you know!!!
> CIAO CIAO!!!!



That's exactly how I thought it worked in English, I don't see it is as an English word at all, but rather an Italian word people know means "bye" - like if someone gives me something and I say "Merci" - it's just a joke.


----------



## Lorixnt2

Arrius said:


> It may be of some slight interest to learn that *ciao *is a corruption of the Italian salutation *sono il suo schiavo* (I am your slave), which replaced the Latin greeting *SERVUS* with the same meaning. Ciao is quite frequently used in German too to say goodbye, and German speakers in the southern part of the German "Sprachraum" even use the Latin word sometimes, but as a greeting on meeting someone whilst out walking, including strangers. It is sometimes spelt *Tschau!*




It's correct Arrius. It is even easier to understand the evolution of the word when you consider the original form stems from the venetian slang where it sounded like

_scia(v)o vostro _and, with progressive reductions, ---> _sciao _---> _ciao_

The original form _sciao _still exists in the venetian slang but, more than a declaration of slavery means something like "my turn next time".

For another example of reduction process it could be nice to compare the Spanish

Vuestra Merced ---> Usted

Ciao.


----------



## mattiegn

I'm not sure that we would actually used ciao to say bye here. Maybe in other English speaking countries. People would probably laugh at you if you said it though, as if you were trying to be Italian or something.


----------



## I Am Herenow

Lorixnt2 said:


> it could be nice to compare the Spanish
> 
> Vuestra Merced ---> Usted
> 
> Ciao.


 
Heh I was thinking of that when I read that "I'm your slave" thing


----------



## zaigucis

Flaminius said:


> Latvian:
> In much keeping with Czech which influenced the shaping of the Latvian orthography, _čau_ is a common phrase for casual greeting.


We use it for hi and for bye, moustly with friends, people we know. Younger generation use it for strangers too.


----------



## ic/ego

When I was in Uruguay, it was extremely common.  I think the same is true of Argentina, though I can't say for certain.  It may also be true in Chile.

The diminutive form, though, was "chaucito".


----------



## mikeEN-IT-FR-DE-CY-FI

I'm living in Geneva at the moment... a lot of people (French speakers) use it - only as a "goodbye", though...


----------



## Arrius

karunavera said:


> Hallo! I'm italian and when I began to read this tread it sounded very strange to me that an italian word was used in so many countries, but...here in Italy we use very often spanish or english words to say goodbye; we use the english bye, or the spanish adios, but only justb like a sort of joke, you know!!!
> CIAO CIAO!!!!


 
I think that the prevalence of *ciao *worldwide is in no small part due to the old pop song "Ciao, ciao, bambina", in which these words were not translated into English or whatever language the rest was translated into: 
e.g. "Ciao, ciao, bambina, du darfst nicht weinen etc."


----------



## mcibor

In Poland I have never heard it from older (40) generation yet, but youngsters. Even I use it sometimes.

It's not very popular, but mostly used is double: ciao ciao (pronounced as ciauciau), and certainly only for saying goodbye.


But in Polish we have too many such sayings:
cześć for hi and bye
nara / narka for bye (derived from na razie)
pa or pa pa for bye (especially said to older people)
but we use also
cya, astalavista, sajonara, arrevoire (also in writing) - I know there's a mistake in Spanish, but this is how it is written in Polish

interesting is also fact that cya is pronounced in two ways: see ya and tsy ha


However lately very popular is saying żółwik for hi and bye, with proper gesture (żółwik - small turtle). I don't know if this is only in Szczecin, or Poland wide.
Tom, did you hear it in your region?

Michał


----------



## epasf

In Spain we use ciao for say bye. It's infomal language. We spell *chao.*


----------



## doman

It's very strange thing that in Vietnamese, "Chào" is main word in greetings. We use "Chào" in every situation.

Pronounce of Vietnamese "Chào" is quite similar to Ciao in Italian, but I don't think that word came from Italia to Vietnam. In Vietnam, you can use "Chào" to evryone, to VIP till to a baby, between friends to very old person...and used in both of "hello" and "goodbye" also.

Today, young people use alot of greetings from English, French, Chinese ect. But Vietnamese people'll be surprised when someone tell them that in Italia they say Ciao for Hello  

It's wierd, is it ? Does anybody know about it?

Some examples:
*Chào* mừng bạn ! - You're welcome !
*Chào* bố, chào mẹ ! - Hi Dad, hi Mom !
*Chào* Luigi ! - Bye Luigi !
Xin *chào* ngài Tổng thống ! Good morning, mr.President !
ect.

 , Maybe Marco Polo used to visit Vietnam in the time he was in China and bring the Vietnamese "Chào" to Italia... Who knows !


----------



## sound shift

I never hear it used in my suburb, but then my suburb isn't very trendy.


----------



## I Am Herenow

ic/ego said:


> The diminutive form, though, was "chaucito".


 
Interesting - I suppose there are some variations from country to country for every language (e.g. holiday/vacation; maths/math in UK/US English).



Arrius said:


> I think that the prevalence of *ciao *worldwide is in no small part due to the old pop song "Ciao, ciao, bambina", in which these words were not translated into English or whatever language the rest was translated into:
> e.g. "Ciao, ciao, bambina, du darfst nicht weinen etc."


 
Really? Lol never would have thought of that. When did the song come out?



doman said:


> It's very strange thing that in Vietnamese, "Chào" is main word in greetings. We use "Chào" in every situation.


 
Interesting - so I take it Vietnamese uses Latin lettering?



sound shift said:


> I never hear it used in my suburb, but then my suburb isn't very trendy.


 
Yeah, I suppose you don't hear it much in the UK but you definitely can say it; like I say, in England it's more something a woman/someone associated with fashion would say, and only for "bye".


----------



## Whodunit

I Am Herenow said:


> Really? Lol never would have thought of that. When did the song come out?


 
I don't know the song either.



> Interesting - so I take it Vietnamese uses Latin lettering?


 
Yes, Vietamese uses Latin letters now. It used to make use of the Chinese characters.


----------



## panjabigator

elroy said:


> Generally, "ciao" is _not_ used in Palestinian Arabic.
> 
> You may hear it (very) occasionally, but to my ears it sounds artificial and pretentious.


I have never heard it in India, and I'd feel the same way about it if I heard it.


----------



## Outsider

¿Dónde se usa "Ciao"? (in Spanish)


----------



## Nizo

In *Esperanto*, you do hear the word _ĉaŭ!_ (pronounced like the Italian _ciao!_) from time to time.  It can be used to say hello or goodbye.  There is even an Esperanto called _Ĉaŭ!_ (http://www.algonet.se/~inko/retmag/).


----------



## Lopes

Frank06 said:


> Same goes for *Dutch*: it is used to say 'bye' (which is used in itself too, as is French salut). The word 'ciao' often gets a typical local diminutive ending in -kes, resulting in 'ciao*kes*' (a weird parallel with Portuguese, no??).
> 'Ciaokes' obviously applies only to spoken language and is dialectical/very infomal.



Would it be safe for me to say tha 'ciaokes' or a variant of this is only used in Belgian Dutch?

In Holland I think  'ciao' is mostly used by 'snobbish' people (who also use 'bye')


----------



## rainbowizard

Ciao! 
I'm interested to know how many people (obviously not Italian people...) use or know the word "Ciao!" as a greeting or salutation when they meet each other.
I'm curious to know it about since, as far as I know, it is an Italian word that derives from the 18th century venetian polite expression of greeting "sciao suo", with the meaning of "I'm at your service / I'm your servant".

thank you.


----------



## Pedro y La Torre

Many Francophones use ciao as a way of saying goodbye rather than saying hello.


----------



## beakman

rainbowizard said:


> Ciao!
> I'm interested to know how many people (obviously not Italian people...) use or know the word "Ciao!" as a greeting or salutation when they meet each other.
> I'm curious to know it about since, as far as I know, it is an Italian word that derives from the 18th century venetian polite expression of greeting "sciao suo", with the meaning of "I'm at your service / I'm your servant".
> 
> thank you.


Hello, rainbowizard!
I think "ciao" is well known as farewell word, at least many people (me included) use it instead of "adios". As for "ciao" as a greeting word, you remind me that we've learnt it at the university, at least it is my impression.
Best regards,
Beakman


----------



## Sidjanga

In Germany it's very common nowadays to say (or write) _ciao _when saying good by to friends or family, or even in other contexts.

Actually, in many places it has (almost) replaced our "own" _tschüss_, which to some seems to sound even somewhat oldfashioned.

We do not use it as a greeting (= to say _hi/hallo_).


----------



## Nanon

Ciao a tutti!
I was in Bulgaria this week and I heard "ciao ciao" a number of times, and in any case more frequently than in Russian (though I speak only Russian, not Bulgarian).
Cyrillised as "чао чао".


----------



## Arrius

Originally Posted by *Arrius* [
_I think that the prevalence of *ciao *worldwide is in no small part due to the old pop song "Ciao, ciao, bambina", in which these words were not translated into English or whatever language the rest was translated into: _
_e.g. "Ciao, ciao, bambina, du darfst nicht weinen etc."_
Really? Lol never would have thought of that. When did the song come out? Hereandnow (and later taken up by Whodunit)

I hadn't realised last April that you had asked me a question about the above. Whenever the song was originally written in Italian, it managed to win some kind of prize in 1959, so it must have been written slightly beforehand. The following link is to the Italian lyrics, but I am pretty certain I used to hear *ciao, ciao bambina un bac(io) ancora e poi per sempre ti abandonaró *not _ti_ _perderó_ which does not fit the metre. Perhaps the first verb was considered too unkind by later generations: 
http://www.canzoni-mp3.net/testo_piove_(ciao_ciao_bambina).htm
Meux vaut tard que jamais, A.


----------



## sokol

Did you know that 'ciao' and 'servus' in origin go back to the same concept, namely 'slave'? -> schiavo > (veneziano) scia(v)o > ciao & (latin) 'servus' = slave 
And that 'tschüss' originated from French _adieu _> (Wallonian) _adjuus _> _tschüss?_
Nice to read how greetings and good-byes travel around Europe and even the World.

As for use of 'ciao' in Slovenia (for good-bye and greeting), this I did only encounter from *Primorci *(Slovenes from the coastal region, near Italy). It may be used too on the Croatian coast, though as reported above rarely in the rest of Croatia. Otherwise, Slovenes use _živio _in and around Ljubljana and _zdravo _in and around Maribor - the latter being the common greeting used by Croatian at least a decade ago.

In Austria, 'tschau' or 'ciao' (both writings occur) is used very often, but only for good-bye, instead of German 'tschüss' (only for good-bye, too) which, too, is rather common, besides the original Austrian 'servus' (for _both _good-bye and greeting) which was once popular in the whole Habsburg monarchy but now is only in Hungary and partly Romania, as reported above (Czechia - and probably Slovakia too? - have adopted 'ahoj').
'Servus' is hardly ever used in Germany, not even in Southern Germany in my experience. Interesting of Sigianga to say that in South-Western Germany obviously 'ciao' is very popular, too - I couldn't say the same for Niederbayern where, in my experience, it's all 'tschüss'.
And very strange for my ears to see DearPrudence write that 'tschüss' is used in France, too.

As for the origin of 'ciao' being so very popular I am not quite sure I can go with the 'song theory'.
One would have to look for older texts using ciao (meaning, texts older than the song) - I think it might be in older literature but for now I can't come up with an example.

By the way, the newest fashion among the youth here in Austria is to use English 'hi' (partly written even 'hy' - not because they don't know better but because the letter 'y' looks so much more st*y*lish ) and 'bye'.


----------



## Arrius

Did you know that 'ciao' and 'servus' in origin go back to the same concept, namely 'slave'? -> schiavo > (veneziano) scia(v)o > ciao & (latin) 'servus' = slave *sokol*
Yes, actually: see my post #6 .


----------



## Pedro y La Torre

sokol said:


> 'Servus' is hardly ever used in Germany, not even in Southern Germany in my experience.



It's definitely used by Bavarians, my friends from Munich use it regularly.


----------



## sokol

Arrius said:


> Yes, actually: see my post #6 .


My excuses for repeating it - I haven't really read but more just browsed the previous postings.


Pedro y La Torre said:


> It's definitely used by Bavarians, my friends from Munich use it regularly.


That's interesting because in my experience (region of Passau, in the east - border to Austria) 'servus' only commonly is used by Austrians working there, not by Bavarians who already do favour 'tschüss' - and even some Austrians working over there in Bavaria are inclined adopting 'tschüss'.

But back to topic ...


----------



## rainbowizard

Arrius said:


> Whenever the song was originally written in Italian, it managed to win some kind of prize in 1959, so it must have been written slightly beforehand. The following link is to the Italian lyrics, but I am pretty certain I used to hear *ciao, ciao bambina un bac(io) ancora e poi per sempre ti abbandonerò *not _ti_ _perderó_ which does not fit the metre.


 
No.  the excerpt from the lyric of the song "Piove" by Domenico Modugno (largely famous around the world for his "Nel blu dipinto di blu" better know as "Volare") is precisely:

Ciao ciao bambina
un bacio ancora
e poi per sempre
ti perderò

This song, written and composed by D. Modugno and Dino Verde won "San Remo - Festival della canzone Italiana" prize in 1959


----------



## Kangy

I hate it when people from other countries who know I'm from Argentina tell me "Ciao" instead of "Chau" or even "Chao". We speak Spanish, not Italian!

So, yeah, we say "Chau" here in Argentina, but just for saying goodbye.


----------



## Arrius

Thank you *rainbow*: I'm sure you must be right.  My knowledge of Italian was even worse in those days.  Ciao,  A.


----------



## Dymn

Is _ciao _really used that much in English (other than as a "joke" for the sake of variation)? I've never lived in any English-speaking country, but while in Spain and Germany people use "_ciao_" regularly, I've never found "_ciao_" to be common at all in English (either UK or the USA).


----------



## Pedro y La Torre

No, it isn't.


----------



## nimak

In Macedonian *Чао!* (Čao!) ['t͡ʃa.ɔ] is used for "Bye!".


----------



## Perseas

In Greek τσάο (pronunc. "tsáo") means "bye". But it's used very rarely.


----------



## merquiades

Dymn said:


> Is _ciao _really used that much in English (other than as a "joke" for the sake of variation)? I've never lived in any English-speaking country, but while in Spain and Germany people use "_ciao_" regularly, I've never found "_ciao_" to be common at all in English (either UK or the USA).


I wouldn't say it's used for joking.  It can be used, more or less depending on thé speaker at any time to mean "bye",  but constantly, no.


----------



## Penyafort

In Catalan, the adapted spelling of it is *txau*. It's understood but hardly ever used, definitely not as much as in other languages. 

When used, it is always to say 'bye'. The only exception would be in Algherese Catalan, where txau may also mean 'hi', as it's the only variety currently influenced by Italian.


----------

